What is globalization Essay Example for Free

What is globalization Essay Globalization: The following will elaborate on globalization, and some theories on traditional trade. AlsoGlobalization as defined by Charles Hill, of the University of Washington†¦ refers to the shift toward a more integrated and interdependent world economy. Globalization has several facets, including the globalization of markets and the globalization of production. Free trade is an example of a situation where government makes no attempt to influence what its citizens can buy from other countries. Under the free trade system Smith, 2009 argued that †¦the in visible hand of the market mechanism, rather then government policy, should determine what a country imports and what it exports. When looking at globalization there are two major factors. The first is the decline in barriers that could have impeded the free flow of goods, services, and capital. This decline in barriers has been on going since the end of World War II. The second factor is the changes in technology. Technology has in recent years has allowed dramatic developments in communication, information processing, and an easy in transportation, that past businesses did not have. (Hill, 2009)One example of a declining barrier to international trade that occurred after World War II was the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The goal of GATT was to remove the barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and capital between nations. Through eight rounds of negotiations among members of state this was accomplished. From GATT the World Trade Organization (WTO) was also founded. The WTO was established to police the international trading system. (Hill, 2009)The lowering of trade barriers made globalization of markets and production a theoretical possibility (Hill, 2009). Since the end of World War II the gains of technology have exploded. The world has seen major advances in communication, information processing, and transportation technology. Telecommunication gives even the smallest companies the ability to gain a global audience. When the computer was first introduced, the computer could easily fill a room and was capable of only a few hundred computations per minute, with a cost the put even the thought of owning a computer in the hands of the government. With the invention of the microprocessor the cost of computing was significantly reduced while the power of the computer increased dramatically. As a result the lower costs of  technology companies today can communicate with potential suppliers, retailers, consumers anywhere in the world at prices that were unheard up only 10 years ago. (Hill, 2009)Technological advances in the transportation have also improved rapidly. The commercial jet of today makes a trip from New York to Tokyo in less time then it would have taken someone to get from New York to Philadelphia in the Colonial days. Other advances such as containerization have help to reduce the cost of transportation while increasing efficiency. (Hill, 2009)Some effects of globalization found locally are in almost any store, from food to auto parts and most things in between, many items we use are not make in the United States as a whole or in part. With out globalization supply of many of these items would be lower due to an increased cost of production. The city of Jacksonville, Fl also offers appeal to global companies. The location of Jacksonville in relation to: an international air and shipping port, major highways, and easy access to rail terminals makes the city an ideal location for global companies such as Bridgestone. Bridgestone is a global company based in Japan with manufacturing facilities in Central, South, and North America, as well as Japan and Africa. The ability of Bridgestone to acquire supplies for production of a wide range of products from around the world allows the company to supply a product of the highest qualities while allowing the price to remain competitive. Globalization has become a reality for almost any company regardless of size. Reference: Hill, Charles W.L. (2009). International Business. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-Text]. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Retrieved April 2, 209, from University of Phoenix, Mgt 448.

Intercultural communication- individual reflection

Intercultural communication- individual reflection Intercultural Communication- Individual reflection The essay looks at the reflection of the group work exercise. In doing so it looks at firstly what is meant by culture. On the basis of defining culture, it further looks at the communication barriers within intercultural teams when working within groups. Based on some theoretical models, the essay tries to identify the issues that arose during the group work. Some analytical view has been given to these issues based on the theoretical concepts to try and give some recommendations and guidelines for effective intercultural group work. Definitions and Special terms: Culture can be defined in many ways. A historic perspective of culture accentuates on traditions being inherited and amassed over time focus on fleeting down the culture. According to Gibson (2002), culture is not used in the senses of literature, music and art; it is more than in the sense of a shared system of attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviour. The way people greet each other, dress, negotiate and resolve conflict, and even the way visual information is seen and perceived. Moreover Gibson (2002) illustrates the concept of culture by using various models such as iceberg model, onion model and tree model. The iceberg model reflects the tangible expressions of culture and behaviour are above the surface of the water, and the attitudes, beliefs, values and meanings underlie the water. The onion model is a layer of culture, which can be peeled away to reveal underlying basic assumptions. For instance, the out layers are behaviour, products, rituals and symbols, under layers are f undamentals, such as attitudes, beliefs and values. Furthermore, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) describe this is explicit and implicit level of culture. Gibson (2002) describes, the tree model contrasts visible and hidden culture, with the roots providing an image of the historical origins of culture. Moving between cultures is like transplanting a tree—to be successful, the roots have to be protected, and support will be needed in the new environment. The main difference in conditioned assumptions and preferences which is seen between cultures stems from what Hofstede calls the collective mental programming, which differentiate member of one group from another (1980:21). This process as per many researchers has resulted in cultural values (Kirkman Shapiro, 1997). The Values , stated as a broad capability to prefer certain states of affairs to others (Hofstede, 1980: 19), shows significant influences on individual capabilities (Geletkanycz, 1997; Shackleton and Ali, 1990). In this regard cultural values, assumptions and preferences, build the underlying main structure of culture, whereas methods of activity and behaviours are the cultures only visible manifestation (Schein, 1985). As a result, the values associated within a culture are reflected in the conditioned assumptions and preferences, which helps members during the daily actions. Indeed there may be cultural differences within different countries (Locke, 1995), National cu ltural values are found to vary in a systematic manner more across cultures than within them (Adler, 1997; Hofstede, 1980). Within any group work, communication is vital. Then again within different members of the group from diverse backgrounds the communication tends to be diverse as well. What actually is meant by such intercultural communication? According to Stoner (2009), communication is a verbal statement meant by one person. However, Littlejohe (1992) argues communication to be the transmission of information or symbolic communication such as language, signs, imagers by means of which they are often transmission. Mehrabian (1981) identified, there are three ways of human face of face communication such as body language, voice tonality, and words. Rosengren (2000) describe, communication is a combination of nonverbal, visual and understanding the field of communication. According to Tian (2000), Communication is one of the most important functions to master in order for any business to succeed in todays increasingly competitive markets, particularly for firms doing business internationally. Gudykun st (1994: 129-136) suggests three ways of interpreting other persons behaviour: Perception checking Listening effectively Giving feedback According to Gudykunst (2005), theorizing the communication within culture has had a tremendous progress within last 20 years. Initial attempts of theorizing the subject had been based on the values and assumptions of the cultures, but over the time most theories are supported by the researches. In order to reflect back on the intercultural issues that came up during group work, these have been addressed based around the theoretical models of cultural dimensions developed by researchers and explained within the model definitions in an analytical manner. Collectivism versus individualism: Looking at the cultural dimension of collectivism versus individualism, it can be said that there was a sense of social connectedness (Earley Gibson, 1998) within the team. It can be said that in contrast to individualism, whereby individual team members tend to look after themselves, there is a sense of collectivist efforts towards the team putting their interests towards the group work (Hofstede, 1991). There is a sense of collectivist team effort of finding pleasure in working together like a social group (Chen et al., 1998; Cox et al., 1991; Earley, 1998). Being in a collectivist culture the team members feel closely connected and committed to the project (Boyacigiller Adler, 1991). There is emphasizes on harmony and cooperation within group members (Kim et al., 1994) and reciprocal cooperation of each member to assist in each tasks (Cox et al., 1991). Yet there was a sense of lack of direction by the group leader. For e.g. the leaders authority or instructions were not adhered to which led to many tasks being unaccomplished. The carefree attitude of the group members was evident throughout the project. As mentioned by Hamden-Turner Trompendaars (1993), Hofstede, 1980 and Triandis, 1983, the group members considered themselves as independent self-controlling entities and emphasized their identity as unique, independent individual. There was a more of an individualistic orientation whereby; individuals focussed on personal gain in combination or regardless of others often taking a competitive stance so as to maximize ones own gain, while hurting those of other team members (Pruitt, 1981; Graham, 1986; Graham et al., 1988). Power Distance: The dimension of power distance reflects a cultures acceptance of social inequality. In different words, power distance refers to the limit that those in lower social groups accept as a given the power and status of those in higher groups.In societies where power distance is at higher side,there is mostly a universal acceptance of notion ,that those with higher status deserve the respect they are afforded without any question Unquestioning tends to greater levels of loyalty in organizational context and the taking of actions only after total approval of the superior. In high power distance cultures, policy of centralized decision making is followed rather than exception (Hofstede, 1980), presenting formidable barriers to teams that are highly interdependent (Shane, 1993). Thus, this should not be taken as a surprise that research suggests that members with a high power distance orientation will o seek approval before initiating any action, since they are accountable to having those at the top of the hierarchy make final decisions (Ueno and Sekaran, 1992). Generally, individuals with high power distance orientation are uncomfortable in determining authority and having decision-making powers given to them (Adler, 1997; Hofstede, 1980, 1991). Within the group, team members at times were with a sense of low in power distance and inclined to be more of egalitarian in nature. These group members largely (though not completely) viewed each other as equals. Specifically, members within this cultural dimension interacted vertically within the group work and always seeking for approval and resources from those in power of other teams (Katz and Tushman, 1983). However, it is argued that the method of equality diminishes hierarchical power in organizations and further it encourage acting without full sanction from ones superiors in low power distance cultures. Hence, these members followed agendas of their own and were bypassing the leader (Howell and Higgins, 1991). That said these practices did not preclude those individuals from helping, when needed. Such member were always on wait for those in power but only if the need arose (Howell and Higgins, 1991). Consequently, members low in power distance orientation were more effectiv e in supportive of team actions requiring upward interactions, while members high in power distance were less effective and indeed reluctant to do so. Uncertainty avoidance: Uncertainty avoidance has been defined as the limit to which the members of a culture feel afraid by uncertain or unpredictable situations (Hofstede, 1991: 113). Individuals from high uncertainty avoidance cultures feel uncomfortable dealing with uncertain situations, and therefore look for clarification when theey are in doubt (Hofstede, 1980). Cultures high on uncertainty avoidance prefers for structure and clarification, which results in an increment of formal rules and regulations in those cultures. In contrast, individuals from low uncertainly avoidance cultures tend to prefer a less regulated or strict organizational structure, hence opting to deal with ambiguous situations rather than seek clarification (Hofstede, 1991). In terms of uncertainty avoidance, it can be said the group members were threatened by the unknown situation of a group member leaving the team. In such there was a breakdown of the project events, which led to some low confidence within each members as this member was the group leader and also had strong characteristics. As per Hofstede such situation leads to not only less confidence and less motivation, but also lacks innovative thinking. Thus the uncertainty avoidance led to a resistance in innovation and creativity by the team members. It was this uncertainty avoidance, which led to a threat situation for the whole team. Avoidance/Addressing behaviour Another dimension, which was noticed during the project work, was avoidance / addressing behaviour. The group either denied there was a conflict existing or even acknowledging that a conflict exists. The team members tended to change the subject, when someone tried to discuss thereby involving avoidance behaviour cultural dimension. Avoidance tactics included topic shifting to avoid the specific issue of conflict, avoiding a member altogether, postponing discussion, talking about abstract things rather than the conflict on hand, silence and denying that a problem exists (Canary, Cunningham Cody, 1988). Avoidance behaviour as per Weldon et al., (1996) exists when members do nothing to deal with the situation. As previously mentioned the group had a more of a collectivist approach. Hence research suggests, collectivists are more of avoiding a conflict than individualists who address it more likely (Adler et al., 1992, Barnland, 1975, Cupach, 1982, Graham, 1984, Graham et al., 1987). Recommendations Guidelines: Addressing the above issues, it can be said diverse cultures within a team tend to correspond to basic assumptions preferences and highly influence them to move towards a cultural dimensions addressed above. Let us look at some recommendations based on the theories surrounding these dimensions to provide guidelines for future project. It is important that within a group the collectivist approach seems apt when working towards a project (Trompenaars Hampden-Turner (1997:52). They further add the manager or leader to be seriously affected by individualist approach. It is important to note certain areas of vital importance like negotiation, decision-making and motivation. As a leader there should be incentive based projects. This should relate to the achievement be it in academic terms or in a company project in monetary terms based on performance. Based on the empirical studies, the issue of power distance relates more towards individualism (Bochner Hesketh, 1994; Bond, Wan et al., 1985; Franke, Hofstede et al., 1991). It is this individualistic approach at times, where there should be focus on equality among team members versus hierarchical structure. This is based on the assumption that treating members within a group as equal individuals is the best way to motivate them (Hampden Turner Trompenaars, 1993). Research suggests that interaction with outside constituents enables members to deal with any external threats or opportunities, which might confront them by allowing members to understand the ambiguities within their environment (Ancona Cadwell 1992a; Lyonski et al., 1988). It is the acquisition of information, which reduces the ambiguities and avoids uncertainties. Members should not rely on one team member and should look for support either within themselves or look for outside support from their tutors and avoid ambiguities or uncertainties (Hofstede, 1991). As for avoiding conflict by not addressing it, it is best to move towards a direct behaviour dimension of culture. This should include acknowledging conflict and overt actions in contrast to not acknowledging it (Chua Gudykunst, 1987). As per Weldon et al., 1996, members using overt actions will conduct conflict management behaviour in a professional manner. In conclusion it is important to note that the cultural dimensions play an important role within any team and it project. The interaction of team members effects from a combination of cultural values be it from a specific country. Each team has a varied combination of people and therefore there are various challenges, which may imply different norms and styles. However there needs to be some agreement on how to make decisions, a leaders attitude on how to deal with conflict etc. Bibliography: Applegate, J. L. and Sypher, H. E. (1988) Constructivist theory and intercultural communication research. Beverly Hill: Sage Baldwin, J. R. (2006). Redefining Culture: Perspective across disciplines. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum associates Bochner, S. (1994) ‘Cross-Cultural Differences in the Self Concept: A Test of Hofstedes Individualism/Collectivism Distinction. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. Vol. 25: 273-283 Boyacigiller, N. Adler, N. (1991) ‘The Parochial Dinosaur: Organizational Science in a Global Context. Academy of Management Review. Vol. 16 (2): 262-290 Charles, L. Y. (2003) The art of investigative interviewing. Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann Cox, T. H., Lobel S. McLeod, P. (1991) ‘Effects of Ethnic Group Cultural Differences on Cooperative Behaviour on a Group Task. Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 34 (4): 827-847 Gibson, R. (2002) Intercultural business communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Golden, T. Veiga J. (2005) ‘Spanning Boundaries and Borders: Toward Understanding the Cultural Dimensions of Team Boundary Spanning. Journal of Managerial issues. Vol. 17 GudyKunst, W. B. (2005) Theorizing about Intercultural Communication. London: Sage Publication Ltd. Gudykunst, W. B. (2003) Cross Culture and Intercultural Communications. London: Sage Publication Ltd. Jehn, K. Weldon, E. (1995) ‘Conflict Management in Bicultural Teams The International Journal of Conflict Management. Vol. 6 Issue 4 Kim, U. et al, (1994) Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method and Applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Press. Kim, Y. and Gudykunst, W. (1988) Theoretical perspectives in intercultural communication(pp. 41-65). Beverly Hills: Sage Tian, R.G. (2000) Understanding consumer behaviour: psycho-anthropological approach: North American Journal of Psychology, [Vol. 2 No.2, pp.273-9.] Trompenaars, F. Hampden-Turner, C. (1997) Riding the Waves of Culture (Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business). 2nd ed. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Trompenaars, F. Wooliams, P. (2003) Business Across Cultures. England: Capstone Publishing Ltd. Tuckman, B.W. Jensin, M.A.C. (1977) ‘Stages of small group development revisited. Group and Organizational Studies, Vol.2, pp 419-427. Wing, L. (2005) ‘Leadership in high-performance Teams: A model for superior team performance. Team performance Management. Vol. 11 No.1/2 pp 4-11.

Understanding And Coping With Client Resistance Social Work Essay

Understanding And Coping With Client Resistance Social Work Essay Professional social workers frequently encounter a thorny situation called client resistance. As resistance is inevitable in the intervention process and will very likely affect the intervention outcomes, study of client resistance is important to social workers and learning how to manage it will be pivotal to achieve expected goals and objectives. This paper will firstly narrate the writer s personal experience so as to put the issue of client resistance on the agenda and give a brief description of involuntary clients or client resistance, then present the writer s understanding of them in terms of their several distinctive features, and finally propose tentative strategies of coping with client resistance. Keywords: resistance; involuntary clients; intervention skills Introduction As potential social workers, we probably will be brought into contact with more and more involuntary clients in the future, like mentally illness patients, deviant behavior adolescents, violent parents, battered children, etc.. Some of them are legally mandated to engage with service providers (Rooney,1992), while others are experiencing social or non-legal pressures, for example, being coerced by family members to seek assistance for a particular behavior (Rooney,1992). These kinds of clients constitute a high proportion of whole clients and display more resistant behaviors than those voluntary ones. Often, they do not seek help willingly and may demonstrate resistant behaviors such as negative evasions, pretended obedience or undisguised hostilities, threats and attacks from the very beginning of the worker s intervention. Therefore, how to interact with and intervene in this type of clients has become a tremendous challenge in the field of social work practice and it is important for social workers to get a deeper understanding of involuntary clients. Case Example X once was a primary school teacher with a fine income, and her husband Y has been running a factory which creates a great deal of wealth to the whole family. Everything seemed perfect that the couple were devoted to each other and have a daughter C who was in her second year in a satisfactory university. Unfortunately, X was extensively burnt in an explosion accident three years ago. Since then, she lost self-confidence because of her disfigured face and refused to go out for the fears of being laughed at. The daughter Z tried to took her out for an airing and ease her anxieties and inferiority about the disfigurement but failed. Since a lot of people pointed at her on the street, X felt painful and tended to isolate herself. To make things worse, not too long after her accident, her husband Y began to make relationship with another woman and was spending a large sum of time and money on that woman. He went to his factory early and back home late every day and seldom had meals at home which was entirely different from what it was before. In addition to Y s indifference, Z was studying at a university so far from home that she was unable to accompany her mother all the time. Consequently, X always staied alone at home with the feeling of helpless and hopeless. Although sometimes Y would come back home and cook meals for A, he had nothing to talk with X. Actually, the daughter Z here is me. I was extremely anguished, seeing my originally harmonious family rapidly disappeared. I tried to cope with such a depressing family atmosphere, but found it difficult. However, when I look back and combine the past experiences with what I have learnt in MSW, I have been realized that there were such a lot of unwise actions had been taken to resolve my family problems. Examples are showed as follows: In that period of time, I tended to communicate with my mother more than with my father and owe this difference to gender similarity and the tragic suffering of my mother. I spent much time on comforting her just because she was the only victim as in my own perception. I constantly teaching my mother how to calm herself down and change her mindsets, so as to survive in a miserable feeling. Unexpectedly, when I suggested her talking more with my father, she just sneered, saying he is so obstinate that nothing will change his mind . It could be inferred that she was still pessimistic and lacked motivation to make changes in spite of my consistent encouragement. On the other hand, the stereotypes that men are always mentally stronger than women made me totally forgot that my father was suffering pains and he needed care as well. Hardly had I decided to concern for and communicate with my father when I learnt that I should take him into consideration early. The most challenging thing was that he had been greatly reluctant to talk about either his former or current relationship with my mother especially the information about his extramarital love. He even did not admit any fault he had made. I have to acknowledge that I was livid when I found out that my father had been two-timing his wife and was highly emotional and illiberally prejudiced against as a result. Only now did I understand the reasons why I failed to assist my parents in settling their contradiction. My deficient consideration of my father s personality and the dignity as a man almost turned an equal dialogue into a thoughtless bickering. In fact, my father was defiant in the who le session because he was afraid that his authoritative status in the family would be ruined, however, I did not realize that kind of unwillingness at that time. No doubt, neither my mother nor my father is my client in the sense of professional, but if they are viewed as clients, it will be a classic case of client resistance. Definition of Client Resistance When doing the literature review, I found that the term involuntary is sometimes used interchangeably with resistant, however, the former refers to the status of the client , while the latter refers to behaviors or characteristics that hinder the therapeutic process (Chui Ho, 2006). Usually, involuntary clients show some resistant thoughts and behaviors. Freud (1914/1957) originally conceptualized resistance as the client s effort to repress anxiety-provoking memories and insights in the unconscious during psychoanalytic free association (Freud, 1914/1957). According to the perspective of social interaction theory, resistance is psychological forces aroused in the client that restrain acceptance of influence (acceptance of the counselors suggestion) and are generated by the way the suggestion is stated and by the characteristics of the counselor stating it (Strong Matross, 1973). Simply stated, resistance has been defined as a process of avoiding or diminishing the self-disclosing communication requested by the interviewer because of its capacity to make the interviewee uncomfortable or anxious (Pope, 1979). Client resistance should not be regarded as something that happens within the client, as a response to his or her inner workings, and must be overcome by the counselor (Cowan Presbury, 2000). Rather, resistance should be understood as a phenomenon that emerges between client and therapist in the unfolding interaction between their differently organized subjective worlds (Cowan Presbury, 2000). In a word, resistance is treated as results from the communication pattern of the counselor and the client. In other words, resistance emerges when the intervention strategies are not gear to clients willingness to accept the style in which the intervention is conducted. Typical Involuntary Clients This part is a personal understanding towards client resistance. Based on an examination of the case example and the literature review, I summarized three types of involuntary clients. 1. Clients Who Have Inadequate Strength or Ability Some clients do not have the ability to take care of themselves or seek help from others, such as the disabled, the battered children and the abandoned elderly. These clients are normally forced by others to consult an agency and a social worker. 2. Clients Who Have Insufficient Motivation The clients who fall into the difficult position for a long time may feel mentally exhausted and have no extra will to seek help. Take some battered women as an example, they tend to have a despairing view of the marriage because of the learned helplessness and may find it meaningless to join in the intervention tasks. Similar to those who have inadequate strength or ability, the majority of the insufficiently motivated clients are not willingly attended the intervention tasks. 3. Clients Who Lack Introspection Although some people know that they are mired in difficulties because of their misbehaviors, they have insufficient self-contemplation, and self-examination when faced with the problems they have, which, as a result, make the problems relapse again and again. This is also the reason why most drug or alcoholic abusers find it difficult to completely overcome their additions. Skills of Coping with Client Resistance For involuntary clients, it is a common phenomenon that they will be reluctant towards self-exposure and conservative to their own experience because they worry about that not doing so would threaten their self-concept. It is necessary for a social worker to learn how to alleviate clients excessive anxiety. Social workers are expected to adjust their intervention methods and the styles to the need of clients. Since most involuntary clients pay much attention to self-protection, the workers should not only avoid requesting or anticipating their self-betrayal, but also refrain from any actions that attempting to tear down clients mask. 1. To Find Out the Third Party In general, social workers are required to listen carefully to clients, thus provide clients more opportunities to express their feelings and perceptions and make them feel respected and admitted. However, things are different when confronting involuntary clients. Since it is an issue of power and control that the pouring-out people are usually vulnerable whereas the listening people always have the power to make evaluation and assessment, the involuntary clients tend to crave a sense of empower through the process of resistance and rebuttal. In involuntary cases, the third party is needed in the course of the entire conversation. If I intake a client like my mother, I should not unilaterally focus on counseling the client changing herself, but on concerning several means to bring the third party into the intervention so that establishing a social work C client C the third party triangular communication system. In short, the third party is ones who push clients to seek help or forced them to ask for counseling. 2. To Make the Intervention Process Clear Apart from understanding about the force that push clients into the intervention, the workers should also enquire about whether the clients have any other confusions. It aims at discovering the problems which clients want to improve. The worker as a listener should do something to give clients a feeling that they are under a clearly planned effective assistance. In addition, it is very important to make sure that clients know what will the worker do and will not do. For example, summarizing or reflecting clients current situation or their main resentment can possibly promote their expectation to the counseling and enhance social workers reliability as well. 3. To Alleviate Clients Anxieties about Changes Resistant clients may or may not recognize that they have a problem, and/or may not want to engage in a process of change (Rooney, 1992) so that they will take resistance as an means to protect themselves from the unknown (Yalom Molyn, 2005). They might be resistant towards the therapeutic process because it involves changing their current maladaptive behavior (Chui Ho, 2006). An available method to ease clients anxiety about change is to make them feel more sense of control. The less the clients can control the process and results of intervention, the more they will view social workers as the representatives of those who force them to participate in the intervention. Consequently, the degree of resistance may increase dramatically. Such situation requires social workers to discuss with clients about the reasons why they are recommended to have the counseling. If a client is compelled to accept counseling, the social worker may point it out to the client that he could reject the counseling and bear the consequences of such rejection, thus restore their sense of control. Furthermore, as cultivating new behaviors is much easier than changing old ones, it might be more reasonable and effective that social works try to train the clients to foster some new patterns of communication and behavioral habits, rather than amend their previous habits, thus establish a harmonious relationship with clients. Some more complex intervention, such as teaching clients relaxation skills, or assisting them in analyzing the irrational thoughts, may have immediate utilities to the involuntary clients. Discussion The relationship between the social worker and the client is always living no matter what happened in the process of intervention. One of the major responsibilities for social workers is paying enough attention to the quality and the health of rapport-building process. To some extent, clients changes or improvements come from an appropriate and valid interaction within a harmonious relationship. As potential social workers, in addition to understanding of various theories or therapies which provide different approaches to resolve client resistance, we should also learn to determine how best to address that relational dynamic in counseling (Joshua, 2008).

The lost battle :: essays research papers

The Alamo   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  General Sam Houston is in charge of the Alamo but he needs time to get a army ready to fight Santa Anna. Houston trusts Jim Bowie and Travis but now Bowie is drunk so he leaves Travis in charge of the Alamo. Then Houston leaves with his army to get it ready to fight. Bowie wakes up from being drunk and they raise the flag. Bowie doesn’t think they can beat Santa Anna and his 7,000 troops. Travis gets word that Santa Anna and his men just crossed a river that is way closer than he had thought. Travis does not tell his troops because they have no hope. Davy Crockett arrives at the Alamo with his men and they dance and drink. Travis does not drink and he wants to give a speech to all of the men about how Texas has no rights. Crockett makes Emil pay a little boy a tip for caring a woman’s bags. Crockett wants her to leave if she wants. Emil and his men try to attack Crockett in the street and Crockett and Bowie beat them up and then they go and have a dr ink. The women told Crockett that there was gun powder in a church and then Crockett and Bowie and some of their men that were sober went to get it and they bring it back to the Alamo they find about 50 rifles and gunpowder. Crockett has Flaca write a letter in Spanish to himself. Travis asks Crockett to ask his men if they will fight and he asks them and they will stay and fight. Crockett has Flaca read the letter in front of everyone and says its from Santa Anna but then after they talk about it he tells them it was from him and that he wrote it. Crockett make Flaca leave to safety. The Mexicans come and tell them to leave but Travis wants to have a war. The Mexicans have a huge cannon so at night Crockett and Bowie sneak out with their men and blow it up by putting mud down the cannon. They are running back and the Mexicans are shooting at them but they all make it back ok. Travis says that they cant do that again. Bowie says he’s going to leave in the morning with his men but Crockett gets him drunk and then he changes his mind and says he’s going to stay and fight in the war.

the militia Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Officially, a militia is part of the organized armed forces of a country that is called upon only in an emergency. There have been paramilitary groups with revolutionary ideas throughout America’s history, but today’s militia movement is a new more organized and violent presence (Meyers). Today the militia are unofficial citizens’ armies organized by private individuals, usually with antigovernment, far right agendas. They rationalize that the American people need armed force to help defend themselves against an increasingly oppressive government that is becoming part of a global conspiracy called the â€Å"New World Order† (Sonder, 2000). These armed groups call themselves militias; to both imply the image of the Minuteman of the Revolution and to try to claim legitimacy by asserting that these paramilitary groups were the â€Å"unorganized militia† of federal and state law. The causes for the militia movement are many, but mos t center around a fear of gun confiscation and the role such confiscation would play in their various one-world conspiracy theories. The major events, which helped to incite the movement, include the Ruby Ridge and Waco standoffs, the Brady Law and the Assault Weapons Manufacture Ban. The first groups began forming at the end of 1993; by mid-1994 (Sonder, 2000) there were a variety of such groups in many states across the country. While the media noted the emergence of this movement, little attention was paid to the phenomenon until late 1994, when civil rights organizations such as the Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League released reports on the militia movement. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center most of these citizens’ armies have few members and are not involved in violent activities (Sonder, 2000). They are interested mostly in the purchase and use of firearms, in discussions of patriotism, and in playing weekend war games. However, there are more than a hundred of these groups, which probably have ties to violent right wing and racist organizations. The militia exploded into prominence, however, in April 1995 when early reports indicated that Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, the Oklahoma City bombing suspects, had belonged to a Michigan militia, or that militia groups were in some way directly connected to the bombing. As a result, nearly every newspaper and television stati... ...f nuclear material  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Criminalizing the use of chemical weapons  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Asking the attorney general to issue a report on whether bomb making literature is protected by the First Amendment  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Giving the secretary of state authorization to identify a group as terrorist and forbid them from raising funds, they can also freeze the assets of such organizations  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Offering restitution to victims of some federal crimes  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Authorizing more than $1 billion over five years for federal, state, and local government programs designed to prevent or deal with terrorists. After the Anti-Terrorism Law of 1996 was passed militia violence continued throughout the United States, but none of activities seemed organized on a large scale (Sonder, 2000). This could be due to increased pressures on the movement by the new law, which forced the militia further underground. Dees, Morris, (1996), Gathering Storm: America’s Militia Threat. Meyers, Leisa, Militia Movement, Microsoft Encarta 2001 CD-ROM Sonder, Ben, (2000) The Militia Movement: Fighters Of The Far Right the militia Essay -- essays research papers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Officially, a militia is part of the organized armed forces of a country that is called upon only in an emergency. There have been paramilitary groups with revolutionary ideas throughout America’s history, but today’s militia movement is a new more organized and violent presence (Meyers). Today the militia are unofficial citizens’ armies organized by private individuals, usually with antigovernment, far right agendas. They rationalize that the American people need armed force to help defend themselves against an increasingly oppressive government that is becoming part of a global conspiracy called the â€Å"New World Order† (Sonder, 2000). These armed groups call themselves militias; to both imply the image of the Minuteman of the Revolution and to try to claim legitimacy by asserting that these paramilitary groups were the â€Å"unorganized militia† of federal and state law. The causes for the militia movement are many, but mos t center around a fear of gun confiscation and the role such confiscation would play in their various one-world conspiracy theories. The major events, which helped to incite the movement, include the Ruby Ridge and Waco standoffs, the Brady Law and the Assault Weapons Manufacture Ban. The first groups began forming at the end of 1993; by mid-1994 (Sonder, 2000) there were a variety of such groups in many states across the country. While the media noted the emergence of this movement, little attention was paid to the phenomenon until late 1994, when civil rights organizations such as the Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League released reports on the militia movement. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center most of these citizens’ armies have few members and are not involved in violent activities (Sonder, 2000). They are interested mostly in the purchase and use of firearms, in discussions of patriotism, and in playing weekend war games. However, there are more than a hundred of these groups, which probably have ties to violent right wing and racist organizations. The militia exploded into prominence, however, in April 1995 when early reports indicated that Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, the Oklahoma City bombing suspects, had belonged to a Michigan militia, or that militia groups were in some way directly connected to the bombing. As a result, nearly every newspaper and television stati... ...f nuclear material  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Criminalizing the use of chemical weapons  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Asking the attorney general to issue a report on whether bomb making literature is protected by the First Amendment  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Giving the secretary of state authorization to identify a group as terrorist and forbid them from raising funds, they can also freeze the assets of such organizations  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Offering restitution to victims of some federal crimes  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Authorizing more than $1 billion over five years for federal, state, and local government programs designed to prevent or deal with terrorists. After the Anti-Terrorism Law of 1996 was passed militia violence continued throughout the United States, but none of activities seemed organized on a large scale (Sonder, 2000). This could be due to increased pressures on the movement by the new law, which forced the militia further underground. Dees, Morris, (1996), Gathering Storm: America’s Militia Threat. Meyers, Leisa, Militia Movement, Microsoft Encarta 2001 CD-ROM Sonder, Ben, (2000) The Militia Movement: Fighters Of The Far Right

Lab 5 Cellular Respiration

Lab 5Cellular Respiration Introduction: Cellular respiration is an ATP-producing catabolic process in which the ultimate electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule, such as oxygen. It is the release of energy from organic compounds by metabolic chemical oxidation in the mitochondria within each cell. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats can all be metabolized as fuel, but cellular respiration is most often described as the oxidation of glucose, as follows: C6H12O6 + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + 686 kilocalories of energy/mole of glucose oxidized Cellular respiration involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that occurs in the cytosol and partially oxidizes glucose into twopyruvate (3-C). The Krebs cycle is also a catabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and completes glucose oxidation by breaking down apyruvate derivative (Acetyl-CoA) into carbon dioxide. These two cycles both produce a small amount of ATP by substra te-level phosphorylation and NADH by transferring electrons from substrate to NAD+ (Krebs cycle also produces FADH2 by transferring electrons to FAD).The electron transport chain is located at the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, accepts energized electrons from reduced coenzymes that are harvested during glycolysis and Krebs cycle, and couples this exergonic slide of electrons to ATP synthesis or oxidative phosphorylation. This process produces 90% of the ATP. Cells respond to changing metabolic needs by controlling reaction rates. Anabolic pathways are switched off when their products are in ample supply. The most common mechanism of control is feedback inhibition.Catabolic pathways, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, are controlled by regulating enzyme activity at strategic points. A key control point of catabolism is the third step of glycolysis, which is catalyzed by an allosteric enzyme, phosphofructokinase. The ratio of ATP to ADP and AMP reflects the energy status o f the cell, and phosphofructokinase is sensitive to changes in this ratio. Citrate and ATP are allosteric inhibitors of phosphofructokinase, so when their concentration rise, the enzyme slows glycolysis.As the rate of glycolysis slows, the Krebs cycle also slows since the supply of Acetyl-CoA is reduced. This synchronizes the rates of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. ADP and AMP are allosteric activators for phosphofructokinase, so when their concentrations relative to ATP rise, the enzyme speeds up glycolysis, which speeds of the Krebs cycle. Cellular respiration is measure in three manners: the consumption of O2 (how many moles of O2 are consumed in cellular respiration? ), production of CO2 (how many moles of CO2 are produced in cellular respiration? , and the release of energy during cellular respiration. PV = nRT is the formula for the inert gas law, where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the number of molecules of gas, R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature of the gas in degrees K. This law implies several important things about gases. If temperature and pressure are kept constant then the volume of the gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of the gas. If the temperature and volume remain constant, then the pressure of the gas changes in direct proportion to the number of molecules of gas.If the number of gas molecules and the temperature remain constant, then the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume. If the temperature changes and the number of gas molecules is kept constant, then either pressure or volume or both will change in direct proportion to the temperature. Hypothesis: The respirometer with only germinating peas will consume the largest amount of oxygen and will convert the largest amount of CO2 into K2CO3 than the respirometers with beads and dry peas and with beads alone.The temperature of the water baths directly effects the rate of oxygen consumption by the contents in the respirometers (the higher the temperature, the higher the rate of consumption). Materials: The following materials are necessary for the lab: 2 thermometers, 2 shallow baths, tap water, ice, paper towels, masking tape, germinating peas, non-germinating (dry) peas, glass beads, 100 mL graduated cylinder, 6 vials, 6 rubber stoppers, absorbent and non- absorbent cotton, KOH, a 5-mL pipette, silicon glue, paper, pencil, a timer, and 6 washers. Procedure:Prepare a room temperature and a 10oC water bath. Time to adjust the temperature of each bath will be necessary. Add ice cubes to one bath until the desired temperature of 10oC is obtained. Fill a 100 mL graduated cylinder with 50 mL of water. Add 25 germinating peas and determine the amount of water that is displaced. Record this volume of the 25 germinating peas, then remove the peas and place them on a paper towel. They will be used for respirometer 1. Next, refill the graduated cylinder with 50 mL of water and add 25 non-germinating peas to it.Add glass beads to the graduated cylinder until the volume is equivalent to that of the expanded germinating peas. Remove the beads and peas and place on a paper towel. They will be used in respirometer 2. Now, refill the graduated cylinder with 50 mL of water. Determine how many glass beads would be required to attain a volume that is equivalent to that of the germinating peas. Remove the beads. They will be used in respirometer 3. Then repeat the procedures used above to prepare a second set of germinating peas, dry peas and beads, and beads to be used in respirometers 4,5,and 6.Assemble the six respirometers by obtaining 6 vials, each with an attached stopper and pipette. Then place a small wad of absorbent cotton in the bottom of each vial and, using the pipette or syringe, saturate the cotton with 15 % KOH. Be sure not to get the KOH on the sides of the respirometer. Then place a small wad of non- absorbent cotton on top of the KOH-soaked absorbent cotton. Repeat the se steps to make the other five respirometers. It is important to use about the same amount of cotton and KOH in each vial. Next, place the first set of germinating peas, dry peas and beads and beads alone in vials 1,2, and 3.Place the second set of germinating peas, dry peas and beads, and glass beads in vials 4,5, and 6. Insert the stoppers in each vial with the proper pipette. Place a washer on each of the pipettes to be used as a weight. Make a sling using masking tape and attach it to each side of the water baths to hold the pipettes out of the water during the equilibration period of 10 minutes. Vials 1,2, and 3 should be in the bath containing water at room temperature. Vials 4, 5, and 6 should be in the bath containing water that is 10oC. After the equilibration period, immerse all six respirometers into the water completely.Water will enter the pipette for a short distance and stop. If the water does not stop, there is a leak. Make sure the pipettes are facing a direction f rom where you can read them. The vials should not be shifted during the experiment and your hands should not be placed in the water during the experiment. Allow the respirometers to equilibrate for three more minutes and then record the initial water reading in each pipette at time 0. Check the temperature in both baths and record the data. Every five minutes for 20 minutes take readings of the water’s position in each pipette, and record.Results: In this activity, you are investigating both the effects of germination versus non-germination and warm temperature versus cold temperature on respiration rate. Identify the hypothesis being tested on this activity. The rate of cellular respiration is higher in the germinating peas in cold than in the beads or non-germinating peas; the cooler temperature in the cold water baths slows the process of cellular respiration in the both germinating and non-germinating peas. This activity uses a number of controls. Identify at least three of the controls, and describe the purpose of each.The constant temperature in the water baths yielding stable readings, the unvarying volume of KOH from vial to vial leading to equal amounts of carbon dioxide consumption, identical equilibration periods for all the respirometers, precise time intervals between measurements, and glass beads acting as a control for barometric pressure all served as controls. Describe and explain the relationship between the amount of oxygen consumed and time. There was a constant, gradual incline in the amount of oxygen consumed over precise passage of time.Why is it necessary to correct the readings from the peas with the readings from the beads? The beads served as a control variable, therefore, the beads experienced no change in gas volume. Explain the effects of germination (versus non-germination) on pea seed respiration. The germinating seeds have a higher metabolic rate and needed more oxygen for growth and survival. The non-germinating peas, t hough alive, needed to consume far less oxygen for continued subsistence. Above is a sample graph of possible data obtained for oxygen consumption by germinating peas up to about 8oC. Draw in predicted results through 45oC.Explain your prediction. Once the temperature reached a certain point, the enzymes necessary for cellular respiration denatured and germination (and large amounts of oxygen consumption) was inhibited. What is the purpose of KOH in this experiment? The KOH drops absorbed the carbon dioxide and caused it to precipitate at the bottom of the vial and no longer able to effect the readings. Why did the vial have to be completely sealed under the stopper? The stopper at the top of the vial had to be completely sealed so that no gas could leak out of the vial and no water would be allowed into the vial.If you used the same experimental design to compare the rates of respiration of a 35g mammal at 10oC, what results would you expect? Explain your reasoning. Respiration wou ld be higher in the mammal since they are warm-blooded and endothermic. If respiration in a small mammal were studied at both room temperature (21oC) and 10oC, what results would you predict? Explain your reasoning. Respiration would be higher at 21 degrees because it would be necessary for the animal to maintain a higher body temperature.The results would proliferate at 10 degrees because the mammal would be required to retain its body temperature at an even lower temperature in comparison to room temperature. Explain why water moved into the respirometer pipettes. While the peas underwent cellular respiration, they consumed oxygen and released carbon dioxide, which reacted with the KOH in the vial, resulting in a decrease of gas in the pipette. The water moved into the pipette because the vial and pipette were completely submerged into the bath. Design an experiment to examine the rates of cellular respiration in peas that have been germinating for 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours.What res ults would you expect? Why? Respirometers could be set up with respirometer 1 containing non-germinating peas, respirometer 2 holding peas that have been germinating 24 hours, 3 would contain the peas that germinated 48 hours, and 4 would hold the peas that germinated 72 hours. All the respirometers should have the KOH added to the bottom in the same manner as in lab described earlier. The respirometers should be placed in baths with the same temperature for all the respirometers. The seeds that have not begun germination would consume very little oxygen.The peas that have been germinating for 72 hours will have the greatest amount of oxygen consumption, while the other two samples will consume a medium (in comparison to respirometers 1 and 4 results) amount of oxygen. Error Analysis: Numerous errors could have occurred throughout the lab. The temperature of the baths may have been allowed to fluctuate, the amounts of peas, beads, KOH, and cotton may have varied from vial to vial da maging the results, and these problems would have occurred only during set up. Air may have been allowed to creep into the vial via a leaky stopper or poorly sealed pipette.Timing for the equilibration of the respirometers and the five-minute time intervals may have been erroneous. It was somewhat difficult to read the markings on the pipettes and so errors are always likely. Mathematical inaccuracies may have taken place when filling out the table and finding the corrected difference by using the formula provided. Discussion and Conclusion: The lab and the results gained from this lab demonstrated many important things relating to cellular respiration. It showed that the rates of cellular respiration are greater in germinating peas than in non- germinating peas.It also showed that temperature and respiration rates are directly proportional; as temperature increases, respiration rates increase as well. Because of this fact, the peas contained by the respirometers placed in the water at 10oC carried on cellular respiration at a lower rate than the peas in respirometers placed in the room temperature water. The non-germinating peas consumed far less oxygen than the germinating peas. This is because, though germinating and non-germinating peas are both alive, germinating peas require a larger amount of oxygen to be consumed so that the seed will continue to grow and survive.In the lab, CO2 made during cellular respiration was removed by the potassium hydroxide (KOH) and created potassium carbonate (K2CO3). It was necessary that the carbon dioxide be removed so that the change in the volume of gas in the respirometer was directly proportional to the amount of oxygen that was consumed. In the experiment water will moved toward the region of lower pressure. During respiration, oxygen will be consumed and its volume will be reduced to a solid. The result was a decrease in gas volume within the tube, and a related decrease in pressure in the tube.The respirometer with just the glass beads served as a control, allowing changes in volume due to changes in atmospheric pressure and/or temperature. This activity uses a number of controls. Identify at least three of the controls, and describe the purpose of each. The constant temperature in the water baths yielding stable readings, the unvarying volume of KOH from vial to vial leading to equal amounts of carbon dioxide consumption, identical equilibration periods for all the respirometers, precise time intervals between measurements, and glass beads acting as a control for barometric pressure all served as controls.Describe and explain the relationship between the amount of oxygen consumed and time. There was a constant, gradual incline in the amount of oxygen consumed over precise passage of time. Condition Calculations Rate in mL O2/ minute Germinating Peas/ 10oC (1. 40-1. 38) 20 min. .001 Germinating Peas/ 20oC (1. 35-. 57) 20 min. .040 Dry Peas/ 10oC (1. 40-1. 38) 20 min. .001 Dry Peas/ 20oC (1. 4 7-1. 42) 20 min. .003 Why is it necessary to correct the readings from the peas with the readings from the beads? The beads served as a control variable, therefore, the beads experienced no change in gas volume.Explain the effects of germination (versus non-germination) on pea seed respiration. The germinating seeds have a higher metabolic rate and needed more oxygen for growth and survival. The non-germinating peas, though alive, needed to consume far less oxygen for continued subsistence. Above is a sample graph of possible data obtained for oxygen consumption by germinating peas up to about 8oC. Draw in predicted results through 45oC. Explain your prediction. Once the temperature reached a certain point, the enzymes necessary for cellular respiration denatured and germination (and large amounts of oxygen consumption) was inhibited.What is the purpose of KOH in this experiment? The KOH drops absorbed the carbon dioxide and caused it to precipitate at the bottom of the vial and no longer able to effect the readings. Why did the vial have to be completely sealed under the stopper? The stopper at the top of the vial had to be completely sealed so that no gas could leak out of the vial and no water would be allowed into the vial. If you used the same experimental design to compare the rates of respiration of a 35g mammal at 10oC, what results would you expect? Explain your reasoning. Respiration would be higher in the mammal since they are warm-blooded and endothermic.If respiration in a small mammal were studied at both room temperature (21oC) and 10oC, what results would you predict? Explain your reasoning. Respiration would be higher at 21 degrees because it would be necessary for the animal to maintain a higher body temperature. The results would proliferate at 10 degrees because the mammal would be required to retain its body temperature at an even lower temperature in comparison to room temperature. Explain why water moved into the respirometer pipettes. W hile the peas underwent cellular respiration, they consumed oxygen and released carbon dioxide, which reacted with the KOH in he vial, resulting in a decrease of gas in the pipette. The water moved into the pipette because the vial and pipette were completely submerged into the bath. Design an experiment to examine the rates of cellular respiration in peas that have been germinating for 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours. What results would you expect? Why? Respirometers could be set up with respirometer 1 containing non-germinating peas, respirometer 2 holding peas that have been germinating 24 hours, 3 would contain the peas that germinated 48 hours, and 4 would hold the peas that germinated 72 hours.All the respirometers should have the KOH added to the bottom in the same manner as in lab described earlier. The respirometers should be placed in baths with the same temperature for all the respirometers. The seeds that have not begun germination would consume very little oxygen. The peas that have been germinating for 72 hours will have the greatest amount of oxygen consumption, while the other two samples will consume a medium (in comparison to respirometers 1 and 4 results) amount of oxygen. Error Analysis: Numerous errors could have occurred throughout the lab.The temperature of the baths may have been allowed to fluctuate, the amounts of peas, beads, KOH, and cotton may have varied from vial to vial damaging the results, and these problems would have occurred only during set up. Air may have been allowed to creep into the vial via a leaky stopper or poorly sealed pipette. Timing for the equilibration of the respirometers and the five-minute time intervals may have been erroneous. It was somewhat difficult to read the markings on the pipettes and so errors are always likely.Mathematical inaccuracies may have taken place when filling out the table and finding the corrected difference by using the formula provided. Discussion and Conclusion: The lab and the results gai ned from this lab demonstrated many important things relating to cellular respiration. It showed that the rates of cellular respiration are greater in germinating peas than in non- germinating peas. It also showed that temperature and respiration rates are directly proportional; as temperature increases, respiration rates increase as well.Because of this fact, the peas contained by the respirometers placed in the water at 10oC carried on cellular respiration at a lower rate than the peas in respirometers placed in the room temperature water. The non-germinating peas consumed far less oxygen than the germinating peas. This is because, though germinating and non-germinating peas are both alive, germinating peas require a larger amount of oxygen to be consumed so that the seed will continue to grow and survive. In the lab, CO2 made during cellular respiration was removed by the potassium hydroxide (KOH) and created potassium carbonate (K2CO3).It was necessary that the carbon dioxide be removed so that the change in the volume of gas in the respirometer was directly proportional to the amount of oxygen that was consumed. In the experiment water will moved toward the region of lower pressure. During respiration, oxygen will be consumed and its volume will be reduced to a solid. The result was a decrease in gas volume within the tube, and a related decrease in pressure in the tube. The respirometer with just the glass beads served as a control, allowing changes in volume due to changes in atmospheric pressure and/or temperature.

Air Operated Four Wheeler

Four-wheel drive, 4WD, or 4Ãâ€"4 (â€Å"four by four†) is a four-wheeled vehicle with a drive train that allows all four wheels to receive torque from the engine simultaneously. While many people associate the term with off-road vehicles, powering all four wheels provides better control in normal road cars on many surfaces, and is an important part of rally racing. In abbreviations such as 4Ãâ€"4, the first figure is the number of wheels; the second is the number of powered wheels. 4Ãâ€"2 mearns a four-wheel vehicle in which engine power is transmitted to only two wheels the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. The main objective of our project is to perform to introduce the advance technology in the field of automobile.Here the four wheeler is carry out for the purpose of changing the gears using with the help of air power. Vehicles, derived from the Latin word, vehiculum, are non-living mearns of transport. Most often they are manufactured ( e. g. bicycles, cars, motorcycles, trains, ships, boats, and aircraft), although some other mearns of transport which are not made by humans also may be called vehicles; examples include icebergs and floating tree trunks. Vehicles may be propelled or pulled by animals, for instance, a chariot, a stagecoach, a mule-drawn barge, or an ox-cart. However, animals on their own, though used as a mearns of transport, are not called vehicles, but rather beasts of burden or draft animals.This distinction includes humans carrying another human, for example a child or a disabled person. A rickshaw is a vehicle that may carry a human and be powered by a human, but it is the mechanical form or cart that is powered by the human that is labeled as the vehicle. For some human-powered vehicles the human providing the power is labeled as a driver. Vehicles that do not travel on land often are called craft, such as watercraft, sailcraft, aircraft, hovercraft, and spacecraft Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground: wheeled, tracked, railed, or skied. The true inventor of four-wheel drive is not really known; the history of such was not well recorded.In 1893, before the establishment of a modern automotive industry in Britain, English engineer Joeseph Bramah Diplock patented a four wheel drive system for a traction engine, including four-wheel steering and three differentials, which was subsequently built. The development also incorporated Bramagh's Pedrail wheel system in what was one of the first four-wheel drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Bramagh's previous idea of developing an engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads. Ferdinand Porsche designed and built a four-wheel driven Electric vehicle for the k. u. k.Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Co. at Vienna in 1899, presented to the public during the 1900 World Exhibition a t Paris. The vehicle was powered by an electric hub motor at each wheel, a design later used by NASA in the lunar rover. Although clumsily heavy, the vehicle proved a powerful sprinter and record-breaker in the hands of its owner E. W. Hart. Due to its unusual status the so-called Lohner-Porsche is not widely credited as the first four-wheel driven automobile. The first four-wheel drive car, as well as hill-climb racer, with internal combustion engine, the Spyker 60 H. P. , was presented in 1903 by Dutch brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of Amsterdam.